Topics in philosophy

"Et kongerige for en livsanskuelse" er en analyse af Immanuel Kants begreb "det kategoriske imperativ". Det kategoriske imperativ tilsigter en almengyldig moralitet i menneskets måde at handle på. Med andre ord betyder det, at vi altid skal gøre det, vi også mener, at andre burde gøre i samme situation. Severin Christensen opstiller en analyse af forholdet mellem "at skulle" og "at ville", som han mener, skaber en spaltning af vores personlighed, når det man "skal" ikke stemmer overens med det man "vil". Analysen fører til mange interessante iagttagelser over etik og moral, lystbetoning og krav, dogmatiske religioner og moralsystemer samt forholdet mellem individ og fællesskab.Severin Christensen (1867-1933) var en dansk læge og moralfilosof. Han skrev en lang række artikler og bøger om sit liberale livssyn. Han forsvarede ihærdigt individets ret til personlig udvikling og var kraftigt imod sin samtids samfundsform, som han mente i alt for høj grad tolererede statens indblanding i private anliggender. Christensen fik en stor tilhængerskare blandt højskolefolk, som sammen med danske tilhængere af den amerikanske økonom Henry George dannede bevægelsen Danmarks Retsforbund. Forbundet blev i 1922 omdannet til et egentlig politisk parti, der ønskede at virkeliggøre "retsstaten" som den blev formuleret af Severin Christensen. Værkerne "Retsstaten. En Fremstilling af det offentlige Livs Etik" (1911), "Retsmoral i Privatliv og Statsstyre" (1916) og "Fra Magtstat til Retsstat" (1924) er blandt Christensens mest kendte moralfilosofiske udgivelser.

"Indad. Det sjælelige Værdigrundlag" er en undersøgelse af værdi i økonomisk og livsfilosofisk betydning. Det er en analyse af det Severin Christensen kalder for vurderingsfilosofi, som tager udgangspunkt i filosofiens og den objektive videnskabs "værdiproblem". Christensen argumenterer for, at objektive og almengyldige forklaringer ikke altid er tilstrækkelige, fordi årsagsforskning og logisk ræsonnement ikke giver svar på sjælelige spørgmål og værdigrundlag hos individet og dennes personlige livsførelse. Christensen bygger sine filosofiske betragtninger på den danske eksistentialisme, som den blev formuleret af Søren Kierkegaard og Ludvig Feilberg.Severin Christensen (1867-1933) var en dansk læge og moralfilosof. Han skrev en lang række artikler og bøger om sit liberale livssyn. Han forsvarede ihærdigt individets ret til personlig udvikling og var kraftigt imod sin samtids samfundsform, som han mente i alt for høj grad tolererede statens indblanding i private anliggender. Christensen fik en stor tilhængerskare blandt højskolefolk, som sammen med danske tilhængere af den amerikanske økonom Henry George dannede bevægelsen Danmarks Retsforbund. Forbundet blev i 1922 omdannet til et egentlig politisk parti, der ønskede at virkeliggøre "retsstaten" som den blev formuleret af Severin Christensen. Værkerne "Retsstaten. En Fremstilling af det offentlige Livs Etik" (1911), "Retsmoral i Privatliv og Statsstyre" (1916) og "Fra Magtstat til Retsstat" (1924) er blandt Christensens mest kendte moralfilosofiske udgivelser.

Ateenan kulttuurieliitti jarjestaa monipaivaiset pidot, joihin osallistuu taiteilijoita, poliitikkoja ja ajattelijoita - mukaan lukien antiikin Kreikan tunnetuin filosofi Sokrates. Platon kuvaa dialogimuodossa Sokrateen ja muun juhlavaen puheita Erokselle, rakkauden jumalalle. Puheet yltyvat syvalliseen pohdintaan rakastamisen merkityksesta seka rakkauden ja filosofian ikiaikaisesta erottamattomuudesta. -

Der erste Roman Musils und ein Meisterwerk der literarischen Moderne: Der Internatsschüler einer Militäranstalt, Törleß, entlarvt zusammen mit zwei anderen Kadetten einen jüngeren Schüler als Dieb. Sie bestrafen und quälen ihn daraufhin auf grausame Weise und üben schonungslos ihre Macht aus, anstatt sein Vergehen zu melden. Obwohl Törleß der qualvolle Umgang mit ihrem „Versuchsobjekt" zunehmend anwidert, schafft er es nicht, sich ganz davon zu befreien...Robert Musil (1880-1942) war ein österreichischer Schriftsteller und Theaterkritiker, der neben einer militärischen und technischen Ausbildung auch in Philosophie promovierte. Er kämpfte im Ersten Weltkrieg an der Front und ging während des Zweiten Weltkriegs mit seiner jüdischen Frau ins Exil in die Schweiz. Sein Hauptwerk ist der Roman „Der Mann ohne Eigenschaften".

"Øjet er i alle kulturer et af de helt centrale symboler, og blikket er efter al sandsynlighed i alle kulturer en af de helt fundamentale sociale mekanismer. Men øjet er bl.a. derfor også blevet et af de helt centrale emner i moderne kulturkritik. Hvor oplysningstænkningen hyldede øjet, finder man i moderne filosofi en udbredt skepsis overfor såvel "skuespilsamfundet" som "overvågningssamfundet"."Professor ved Institut for Kunst og Kulturvidenskab på Københavns Universitet Martin Zerlang fortæller om øjet og blikket i en idehistorisk og kulturhistorisk sammenhæng. Han drager eksempler fra nogle af den vestlige filosofis største tænkere: Descartes, Hegel, Kierkegaard, Marx, Simmer og Sartre.Martin Zerlang (f. 1952) er en dansk forfatter og professor ved Institut for Kunst og Kulturvidenskab på Københavns Universitet. Han er uddannet mag.art. i litteraturvidenskab og forsker i dag i både litteratur og moderne kultur. Blandt Martin Zerlangs mange udgivelser kan nævnes "Underholdningens historie", "Bøndernes klassekamp i Danmark" og "Herman Bangs København".

"e;Martva"e; on jatko-osa Algot Untolan suurromaanille "e;Harhama"e;. Moderniin tyyliin kirjoitettu "e;Harhama"e; kertoo Harhama-nimisesta miehesta, joka menettaa omaisuutensa ja innostuu sosialismista. Teos oli viela julkaisuvuonnaan 1909 erikoinen ja tuli muun muassa Eino Leinon lyttaamaksi."e;Martva"e; alkaa kuin oikeudenkaynnista, jossa kasitellaan "e;Harhaman"e; saamaa palautetta - ja oikeutta tulla lasketuksi taiteeksi. Tarinan juoni kuitenkin seuraa nuorta paria Martvaa ja Oolavia, jotka ovat vieraantuneet uskonnollisista arvoista. Harhaman tarina kietoutuu heidan tarinaansa, silla Harhaman kirjoittama "e;Varoitushuuto"e; on noussut suosikkikirjaksi, jolta Martva ja Oolavikaan eivat voi valttya - ja he ottavat kirjasta jopa elamanmallia. Tama on "e;Martvan"e; toinen osa.-

"e;Martva"e; on jatko-osa Algot Untolan suurromaanille "e;Harhama"e;. Moderniin tyyliin kirjoitettu "e;Harhama"e; kertoo Harhama-nimisesta miehesta, joka menettaa omaisuutensa ja innostuu sosialismista. Teos oli viela julkaisuvuonnaan 1909 erikoinen ja tuli muun muassa Eino Leinon lyttaamaksi."e;Martva"e; alkaa kuin oikeudenkaynnista, jossa kasitellaan "e;Harhaman"e; saamaa palautetta - ja oikeutta tulla lasketuksi taiteeksi. Tarinan juoni kuitenkin seuraa nuorta paria Martvaa ja Oolavia, jotka ovat vieraantuneet uskonnollisista arvoista. Harhaman tarina kietoutuu heidan tarinaansa, silla Harhaman kirjoittama "e;Varoitushuuto"e; on noussut suosikkikirjaksi, jolta Martva ja Oolavikaan eivat voi valttya - ja he ottavat kirjasta jopa elamanmallia. Tama on "e;Martvan"e; kolmas osa.-

"e;Martva"e; on jatko-osa Algot Untolan suurromaanille "e;Harhama"e;. Moderniin tyyliin kirjoitettu "e;Harhama"e; kertoo Harhama-nimisesta miehesta, joka menettaa omaisuutensa ja innostuu sosialismista. Teos oli viela julkaisuvuonnaan 1909 erikoinen ja tuli muun muassa Eino Leinon lyttaamaksi."e;Martva"e; alkaa kuin oikeudenkaynnista, jossa kasitellaan "e;Harhaman"e; saamaa palautetta - ja oikeutta tulla lasketuksi taiteeksi. Tarinan juoni kuitenkin seuraa nuorta paria Martvaa ja Oolavia, jotka ovat vieraantuneet uskonnollisista arvoista. Harhaman tarina kietoutuu heidan tarinaansa, silla Harhaman kirjoittama "e;Varoitushuuto"e; on noussut suosikkikirjaksi, jolta Martva ja Oolavikaan eivat voi valttya - ja he ottavat kirjasta jopa elamanmallia. Tama on "e;Martvan"e; ensimmainen osa. -

"Skønt den nyere tids store kampe imellem de forskellige religiøse, sociale og politiske retninger også angår etiske spørgsmål, tør man dog påstå, at der hvad etikkens indhold, selve pligtloven angår, hersker langt større ensartethed og overensstemmelse, end modstanderne i stridens hede er sig bevidste. På samme kulturtrin ville ifølge tingenes gang de almindelige grundsætninger og regler for den menneskelige handlen være de samme for alle. En fælles grund af humanitet udgør den arena, hvor kampen føres."Harald Høffding gennemgår filosofihistorien for at undersøge, hvad grundlaget for den humane etik og diskussionen om denne er. Bogen belyser både de psykologiske, sociale og filosofiske aspekter for at komme helt i dybden med det i enhver tid relevante emne.Harald Høffding (1843-1931) var teolog og filosof og virkede gennem 30 år som professor ved Københavns Universitet. I løbet af sin karriere opnåede han en central position i det danske videns- og kulturliv og nød stor anerkendelse både i og udenfor Danmark. Høffding var yderst virksom hele sit liv, og tankegodset i hans bøger er stadig relevant i dag. Udover værkerne om etik, filosofihistorie og psykologi kendes han for monografier om Søren Kierkegaard, Jean-Jacques Rousseau og Baruch Spinoza.

"Hvad er et primitivt genis betydning? Det er ikke så meget at bringe noget absolut nyt frem; thi der er egentlig ikke noget nyt under solen; men det er at revidere det almenmenneskelige, de fundamentale spørgsmål."Søren Kierkegaard er nok Danmarks mest berømte filosof, og hans tanker har inspireret mennesker i hele verden. Harald Høffding gennemgår de forskellige aspekter af Søren Kierkegaards filosofi og fortæller endvidere, hvordan hans filosofiske anskuelser kan relateres til hans egen komplicerede personlighed. Alt i alt giver bogen et spændende og helstøbt billede af legenden.Harald Høffding (1843-1931) var teolog og filosof og virkede gennem 30 år som professor ved Københavns Universitet. I løbet af sin karriere opnåede han en central position i det danske videns- og kulturliv og nød stor anerkendelse både i og udenfor Danmark. Høffding var yderst virksom hele sit liv, og tankegodset i hans bøger er stadig relevant i dag. Udover værkerne om etik, filosofihistorie og psykologi kendes han for monografier om Søren Kierkegaard, Jean-Jacques Rousseau og Baruch Spinoza.

"Filosofiske ideer kunne, som filosofiens historie viser, have en dobbelt betydning. De kunne være forsøg på opstilling, behandling eller løsning af visse problemer, og de kunne stå som symptomer på visse tendenser i det menneskelige åndsliv. Der vil være en stadig vekselvirkning mellem disse to sider ved filosofien, idet det kan stå som symptom på en ejendommelig åndelig bevægelse, at et problem opstilles og behandles på en bestemt måde, og idet på den anden side problemernes brod kan udløse åndelige bevægelser, der ellers ikke ville blive til."Professor i filosofi Harald Høffding undersøger nogle af filosofiens mest omdiskuterede problemer. Høffding forholder sig blandt andet til den menneskelige bevidsthed, erkendelsesproblemet samt det religiøse problem.Harald Høffding (1843-1931) var teolog og filosof og virkede gennem 30 år som professor ved Københavns Universitet. I løbet af sin karriere opnåede han en central position i det danske videns- og kulturliv og nød stor anerkendelse både i og udenfor Danmark. Høffding var yderst virksom hele sit liv, og tankegodset i hans bøger er stadig relevant i dag. Udover værkerne om etik, filosofihistorie og psykologi kendes han for monografier om Søren Kierkegaard, Jean-Jacques Rousseau og Baruch Spinoza.

- Este audiolibro está narrado en Español neutral.Zaratustra se presenta como el profeta supremo fuente de sabiduría, un ermitaño que vive recluido en la montaña, donde a lo largo de su retiro reflexiona sobre la vida y la naturaleza del hombre. Cuando siente que es el momento adecuado, decide regresar al mundo para comunicar el fruto de su conocimiento. Así, esta obra narra los discursos que Zaratustra pronuncia entre los hombres para anunciar su nueva doctrina.Escrita en forma de fábula, y haciendo referencia a la Biblia y a la tradición cristiana, Zaratustra es un mesías que lleva al hombre la noticia de su salvación, proclamando el advenimiento del Übermensch o Superhombre.Toda la obra posee un carácter poético y se encuentra llena de símbolos y metáforas, expresadas en un brillante estilo, mezclando elementos narrativos, conceptuales y líricos. Es una obra peculiar que fusiona filosofía, literatura y poesía, y tuvo una profunda influencia en el ámbito cultural europeo del siglo XX. Así, la visión imaginaria del profeta, inspirado en Zoroastro, sirve como portavoz y como símbolo de las principales ideas de Nietzsche, como la muerte de Dios, la voluntad del poder y el eterno retorno de la vida. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900) fue un filósofo, poeta, músico y filólogo alemán. Es considerado uno de los pensadores más relevantes del siglo XIX debido a la profunda influencia que su obra ha ejercido en la historia y la cultura occidental. Escribió sobre diversos temas como el arte, la historia, la religión, la ciencia y la filología, criticando a la cultura, la religión y la filosofía occidental mediante el análisis de conceptos y actitudes morales. Su célebre frase "Dios ha muerto" ha influenciado la agenda de muchos intelectuales, tales como Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze o Martin Heidegger. Al introducir una nueva cosmovisión que ha reorganizado el pensamiento del siglo XX, Nietzsche recibió un amplio reconocimiento como una figura significativa en la filosofía contemporánea. . Su influencia fue particularmente notoria en los filósofos existencialistas, críticos, fenomenológicos, postestructuralistas y posmodernos, y en la sociología contemporánea. Además, es considerado uno de los tres «maestros de la sospecha» (según la expresión de Paul Ricoeur), junto a Karl Marx y Sigmund Freud.

"Denne bog diskuterer fornuft, fornuftens former og uformer, og beskæftiger sig derfor med kunst – maleri, skulptur, film, video, poesi – og med kritik, der forholder sig til kunstens værker eller arbejdsmåder; dette område forekommer mig at vise direkte ind til den sansende tankes elementære laboratorium, dens brændende hjemsøgelser og ikke desto mindre strømmende, flydende kølige ’water music’. Ingen fornuft uden skønhed..."I essaysamlingen "Den brændende fornuft" undersøger Per Aage Brandt betydninger og ytringer i kunstens mange former og de forskellige måder, man kan forholde sig til den på. Bogen består af en lang række essays om blandt andet kultur, natur, kvindens væsen, tale og æstetik.Per Aage Brandt (f. 1944) er en dansk sprogforsker og digter. Han er uddannet i romansk filologi ved Københavns Universitet og Sorbonne Universitet i Frankrig. Per Aage Brandt har været med til at grundlægge Forfatterskolen og har både været professor ved Aarhus Universitet og Case Western Reserve University i Ohio, USA.

Gli aforismi su "La saggezza della vita" di Arthur Schopenhauer costituiscono un classico della letteratura di uno dei maggiori moralisti di tutti i tempi. L’opera indica una via che dovrebbe consentirci di vivere più serenamente o il meno infelicemente possibile. "Bastare a se stesso, esser per se stesso tutto in tutto, e poter dire: «Omnia mea mecum porto» (porto con me tutte le cose mie), ecco certamente la condizione più favorevole per la nostra felicità"Arthur Schopenhauer è stato un filosofo tedesco, cittadino espatriato del regno di Prussia, e uno dei maggiori pensatori del XIX secolo e dell'epoca moderna. Il suo pensiero recupera alcuni elementi dell'illuminismo, della filosofia di Platone, del romanticismo e del kantismo, fondendoli con la suggestione esercitata dalle dottrine orientali, specialmente quella buddhista e induista. Schopenhauer crea una sua originale concezione filosofica caratterizzata da un forte pessimismo, la quale ebbe una straordinaria influenza, seppur a volte completamente rielaborata, sui filosofi successivi, come ad esempio Friedrich Nietzsche, e, in generale, sulla cultura europea coeva e successiva, inserendosi nella corrente delle filosofie della vita.

These works articulate the most fundamental principles of Kant’s ethical and political world-view. "What is Enlightenment?" (1784) and "Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals" (1785) challenge all free people to think about the requirements for self-determination both in our individual lives and in our public and private institutions. Kant’s "Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals" is dedicated to the proposition that all people can know what they need to know to be honest, good, wise, and virtuous. The purpose of Kant’s moral philosophy is to help us become aware of the principles that are already contained within us. Innocence and dependence must be replaced with wisdom and good will if we are to avoid being vulnerable and misguided. According to Kant, freedom of thought leads naturally to freedom of action. When that happens, governments begin to treat human beings, not as machines, but as persons with dignity. Immanuel Kant begins "Toward Lasting Peace" by contrasting the realism of practical politicians with the high-minded theories of philosophers who "dream their sweet dreams." His opening line provides a grim reminder that the only alternative to finding a way to avoid the war of each against all is the lasting peace of the graveyard. The advent of total war and the development of nuclear weapons in the twentieth century give Kant’s reflections an urgency he could not have anticipated. Kant published this work in 1795, during the aftermath of the American Revolution and the French Revolution. The high hopes of the European Enlightenment had been dampened by the Reign of Terror in which tens of thousands of people died, and the perpetual cycle of war and temporary armistice seemed to be inescapable. Kant’s essay is best known as an early articulation of the idea of a league of nations that could bring "an end to all hostilities." Today The United Nations continues to pursue that dream, but lasting peace still seems to be wishful thinking.No modern philosopher is more important than Immanuel Kant. His works extend from epistemology and metaphysics to aesthetics, ethics, and political philosophy. His "Critical Philosophy" is developed in three major works: "The Critique of Pure Reason," "The Critique of Practical Reason," and "The Critique of Judgment." A German speaker, he was born in Prussia, an area that is now part of Poland. He never travelled more than 50 miles from his home in Königsberg, but his influence has since pervaded every aspect of Western culture.

Den menneskelige erkendelse opnås blandt andet via kategorisering af tanker, mente filosof Harald Høffding. Her kan du læse noget om totalitet som kategori. Teksten blev oprindeligt udgivet i et videnskabeligt tidskrift. Høffdings totalitetsbegreb fik både betydning i filosofisk og psykologisk forskning, men også indenfor jura. Det spillede blandt andet en vigtig rolle for den danske jurist Alf Ross' udvikling af retsbegreber.Harald Høffding (1843-1931) var teolog og filosof og virkede gennem 30 år som professor ved Københavns Universitet. I løbet af sin karriere opnåede han en central position i det danske videns- og kulturliv og nød stor anerkendelse både i og udenfor Danmark. Høffding var yderst virksom hele sit liv, og tankegodset i hans bøger er stadig relevant i dag. Udover værkerne om etik, filosofihistorie og psykologi kendes han for monografier om Søren Kierkegaard, Jean-Jacques Rousseau og Baruch Spinoza.

I dette filosofihistoriske værk behandler Harald Høffding tankegodset fra en række af 1800-tallets største tænkere, heriblandt Søren Kierkegaard og Friedrich Nietzsche.Høffdings værk handler om moderne filosofi, men rummer også filosofihistoriske tilbageblik, der uddyber og eksemplificerer hans egne og andre samtidige filosofiske tænkeres standpunkter. Ved at forene og sammenligne tendenser fra forskellige perioder og videnskabelige strømninger, bliver han i stand til at skabe helhedsanskuelser.Harald Høffding (1843-1931) var teolog og filosof og virkede gennem 30 år som professor ved Københavns Universitet. I løbet af sin karriere opnåede han en central position i det danske videns- og kulturliv og nød stor anerkendelse både i og udenfor Danmark. Høffding var yderst virksom hele sit liv, og tankegodset i hans bøger er stadig relevant i dag. Udover værkerne om etik, filosofihistorie og psykologi kendes han for monografier om Søren Kierkegaard, Jean-Jacques Rousseau og Baruch Spinoza.

"Unto this last" est un essai de John Ruskin de 1860, qui critique de l'économie capitaliste du 18e et 19e siècle, et est généralement considéré comme étant un précurseur de l'économie sociale. Ce texte fut violemment critiqué après sa publication.C'est en 1904, en Afrique du Sud, que Gandhi lit pour la première fois ce texte, qui aura une influence énorme sur ses convictions. En 1908, il adapte le texte de Ruskin en gujarati, lui donnant alors le titre de « Sarvodaya », le bien-être de chacun, qui devint aussi le nom de sa philosophie. Cette adaptation de Gandhi fut traduite en anglais en 1951, sous le titre de "Unto This Last, une paraphrase de John Ruskin".Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948), de son vrai nom Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, était un dirigeant politique et guide spirituel. Le terme sanskrit "mahatma" signifie "grande âme" et est un titre qu'il refusa toute sa vie. Il prônait entre autres la tolérance, la non-violence, et le végétarisme.

"The Birth of Tragedy" stands alongside Aristotle’s "Poetics" as essential works for all who seek to understand poetry and its relationship to human life. In this, his first book, Nietzsche developed a way of thinking about the arts that unites the Greek gods Apollo and Dionysus as the central symbol of human existence. Although tragedy serves as the focus of this work, music, visual art, dance, and the other arts can also be viewed using Nietzsche’s analysis and integration of the Apollonian and the Dionysian.Nietzsche opened the door to philosophy in the 20th century. He anticipated depth psychology, championed myth, attacked literalism in religion and the arts, placed humanity in an evolutionary perspective, and launched a critique of scientism that remains potent in the 21st century. Although he is often linked to the movement known as existentialism, Nietzsche’s overall work defies being placed in any single category.

David Hume’s Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion had not yet been published when he died in 1776. Even though the manuscript was mostly written during the 1750s, it did not appear until 1779. The subject itself was too delicate and controversial, and Hume’s dialectical examination of religious knowledge was especially provocative. What should we teach young people about religion? The characters Demea, Cleanthes, and Philo passionately present and defend three sharply different answers to that question. Demea opens the dialogue with a position derived from René Descartes and Father Malebranche — God’s nature is a mystery, but God’s existence can be proved logically. Cleanthes attacks that view, both because it leads to mysticism and because it attempts the impossible task of trying to establish existence on the basis of pure reason, without appeal to sense experience. As an alternative, he offers a proof of both God’s existence and God’s nature based on the same kind of scientific reasoning established by Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton. Taking a skeptical approach, Philo presents a series of arguments that question any attempt to use reason as a basis for religious faith. He suggests that human beings might be better off without religion. The dialogue ends without agreement among the characters, justifying Hume’s choice of dialogue as the literary style for this topic. Born in Scotland, Hume challenges much of the philosophy that prevailed in Europe and England in the 17th and 18th century. He was especially critical of the rationalism developed by René Descartes and his followers. Although he wrote a number of influential essays (including "A Treatise of Human Nature" and "Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding"), his dialogues are especially well suited for the topic of religion. As his character Pamphilus says: "Any philosophical question that is so obscure and uncertain that human reason can reach no agreement about it, if it is treated at all, seems to lead us naturally to the style of dialogue."

Gorgias of Leontini, a famous teacher of rhetoric, has come to Athens to recruit students, promising to teach them how to become leaders in politics and business. A group has gathered at Callicles' house to hear Gorgias demonstrate the power of his art. This dialogue blends comic and serious discussion of the best life, providing a penetrating examination of ethics. Is it better to suffer evil or to do evil? Is it better to do something wrong and avoid being caught or to be caught and punished? Is pleasure the same as goodness? As the characters in the dialogue pursue these questions, the foundations of ethics and the nature of the good life come to light.Plato lived in Athens, Greece. He wrote approximately two-dozen dialogues that explore core topics that are essential to all human beings. Although the historical Socrates was a strong influence on Plato, the character by that name that appears in many of his dialogues is a product of Plato’s fertile imagination. All of Plato’s dialogues are written in a poetic form that his student Aristotle called "Socratic dialogue." In the twentieth century, the British philosopher and logician Alfred North Whitehead characterized the entire European philosophical tradition as "a series of footnotes to Plato." Philosophy for Plato was not a set of doctrines but a goal — not the possession of wisdom but the love of wisdom. Agora Publications offers these performances based on the assumption that Plato wrote these works to be performed by actors in order to stimulate additional dialogue among those who listen to them.

The basic principles that Bergson articulates, especially his way of thinking about reality as a dynamic process and his view of human beings as creative and evolving, should be helpful to anyone who seeks to go beyond simply dealing with the practical demands of daily life and consider the nature of things. Of special importance is Bergson’s claim that it is both possible and necessary to know from the inside rather than confining our attention to external perspectives and points of view. Intuition is able to get beyond what is relative and place us inside reality. This essay is, as the title says, an introduction. But if we think there is more to a human being — and even to nature itself — than material structures alone, perhaps the time has come to take a fresh look at Bergson’s essay. In "An Introduction to Metaphysics," Bergson traces the demise of metaphysics to the failure of both scientific materialism and dogmatism and to the immense success of a kind of pragmatism that promised liberation from the fruitless battles among various schools of philosophy. He also rejects relativism and criticizes the vacuum that is created when philosophers refuse to inquire about the nature of reality. To avoid metaphysics easily leads to a worldview shaped by unexamined ideas and hidden presuppositions. Henri Bergson was born in the year that Darwin published the Origin of the Species. He could not have imagined the philosophical impact of evolutionary theory, which is now so great that Bergson’s philosophy, which emphasizes "creative evolution," is experiencing a significant revival. The basic principles that Bergson articulates, especially his way of thinking about reality as a dynamic process and his view of human beings as creative and evolving, should be helpful to anyone who seeks to go beyond simply dealing with the practical demands of daily life and consider the nature of things.

Socrates questions Ion, an actor who just won a major prize, about his ability to interpret the epic poetry of Homer. How does an actor, a poet, or any other artist create? Is it by knowing? Is it by inspiration? As the dialogue proceeds, the nature of human creativity emerges as a mysterious process and an unsolved puzzle. Plato lived in Athens, Greece. He wrote approximately two-dozen dialogues that explore core topics that are essential to all human beings. Although the historical Socrates was a strong influence on Plato, the character by that name that appears in many of his dialogues is a product of Plato’s fertile imagination. All of Plato’s dialogues are written in a poetic form that his student Aristotle called "Socratic dialogue." In the twentieth century, the British philosopher and logician Alfred North Whitehead characterized the entire European philosophical tradition as "a series of footnotes to Plato." Philosophy for Plato was not a set of doctrines but a goal — not the possession of wisdom but the love of wisdom. Agora Publications offers these performances based on the assumption that Plato wrote these works to be performed by actors in order to stimulate additional dialogue among those who listen to them.

Berkeley uses the Socratic mode of inquiry in "Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous" to question fundamental beliefs about knowledge and reality. These dialogues are between Hylas (whose name is derived from the ancient Greek word for matter) and Philonous, whose name means "lover of mind." The new physical sciences developed in the seventeenth century supported the materialism proposed by Thomas Hobbes and several other philosophers. This worldview proclaimed that all of reality consists of nothing but matter in motion, thus promoting atheism and ethical skepticism. The implications for politics, ethics, and religion caused concern among leading intellectuals in the eighteenth century. Whatever the value of the positive claims presented in this work, Berkeley foreshadows the philosophical impact of twentieth century physics, which challenges the foundations of such materialism and calls for a better understanding of both the physical and the mental aspects of reality.Berkeley was born in Ireland where he served as Bishop of Cloyne (Dublin). He published works in philosophy, mathematics, science, and religion. His other works include the "Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge" and "An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision". He is one of the central figures in the tradition known as Empiricism.

René Descartes is often described as the first modern philosopher, but much of the content of his "Meditations on First Philosophy" can be found in the medieval period that had already existed for more than a thousand years. Does God exist? If so, what is his nature? Is the human soul immortal? How does it differ from the body? What role do sense experience and pure reason play in knowing? Descartes stands out from his predecessors because of the method he developed to treat these and other fundamental questions. Drawing on his study of mathematics, he searches for a way to establish absolutely certain conclusions based on indubitable premises. His importance in modern philosophy lies in the challenge he offers to every subsequent thinker in philosophy and science.The French philosopher Descartes is often called the "Father" of modern philosophy in the West. His Discourse on Method presents the reason why: his method of inquiry. He was the quintessential "rationalist," subjecting all sense experience as doubtful and untrustworthy. Rather than relying on external authority (whether from other people or from God), Descartes demands nothing less than absolute certainty that begins with the self and proceeds step by step with the rigor of logical and mathematical precision. Even though he claims that he has proved the existence of God and explained God’s nature, even that core tenet must be established through rigorous logical argument. No subsequent philosopher is able to ignore this bold and challenging foundation for all thinking. Those who become his disciples as well as those who reject his way of thinking are all under his spell. Many think they have broken that spell only to find that he has shaped them in ways that are not easy to escape.

After Socrates is sentenced to death by the Athenian court, his friend Crito comes to the prison to help him escape and go to another country. Socrates responds by saying that he would accept Crito’s offer only if he can be convinced that it is right and just to do so. This dialogue is not only about Socrates’ particular choice but also about the very essence of law and community.Plato lived in Athens, Greece. He wrote approximately two-dozen dialogues that explore core topics that are essential to all human beings. Although the historical Socrates was a strong influence on Plato, the character by that name that appears in many of his dialogues is a product of Plato’s fertile imagination. All of Plato’s dialogues are written in a poetic form that his student Aristotle called "Socratic dialogue." In the twentieth century, the British philosopher and logician Alfred North Whitehead characterized the entire European philosophical tradition as "a series of footnotes to Plato." Philosophy for Plato was not a set of doctrines but a goal — not the possession of wisdom but the love of wisdom. Agora Publications offers these performances based on the assumption that Plato wrote these works to be performed by actors in order to stimulate additional dialogue among those who listen to them.

John Stuart Mill’s "On Liberty" was first published in 1859. In the 21st century this text confirms Socrates’ claim that "it is only the life of true philosophy that scorns the life of political ambition" (Plato’s Republic, 521). Mill’s thinking about freedom in civic and social life examines fundamental principles shared among conservative, liberal, and radical politicians. The life of true philosophy stands outside the political battles that are rampant in society and seeks the political wisdom that is necessary for a good life in any age. "On Liberty" should be read alongside the classic documents that declare the basic nature and importance of human freedom and liberty such as the "U.S. Declaration of Independence" (1776), the French "Rights of Man" (1789), "The Declaration of Sentiments at the Seneca Falls Convention" (1848), and the "United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights" (1948). When the officials of any government seek to change the laws that regulate individual liberty or when rhetoricians seek to change public opinion about what individuals should or should not be allowed to say or do, Mill’s "On Liberty" serves as an antidote to the poisons of excessive intrusion into the lives of individuals.Mill was born in London, the son of James Mill, a Scotsman who came to England and joined with Jeremy Bentham to develop utilitarianism. Today John Stuart Mill is also known as one of the major proponents of utilitarianism, but the depth of his philosophical thinking goes far beyond the disputes among ethical theorists. In spite of his criticism of some aspects of Immanuel Kant’s philosophy, his ethical position eventually embraces Kant’s most basic concepts: autonomy and universality. Mill contributed to logic, philosophy of science, epistemology, economics, psychology, politics, and ethics. He was also an early proponent of the rights of women.

In Euthyphro, Socrates is on his way to the court where he must defend himself against serious charges brought by religious and political authorities. On the way, he meets Euthyphro, an expert on religious matters, who has come to prosecute his own father. Socrates questions Euthyphro’s claim that religion serves as the basis for ethics. Plato lived in Athens, Greece. He wrote approximately two-dozen dialogues that explore core topics that are essential to all human beings. Although the historical Socrates was a strong influence on Plato, the character by that name that appears in many of his dialogues is a product of Plato’s fertile imagination. All of Plato’s dialogues are written in a poetic form that his student Aristotle called "Socratic dialogue." In the twentieth century, the British philosopher and logician Alfred North Whitehead characterized the entire European philosophical tradition as "a series of footnotes to Plato." Philosophy for Plato was not a set of doctrines but a goal — not the possession of wisdom but the love of wisdom. Agora Publications offers these performances based on the assumption that Plato wrote these works to be performed by actors in order to stimulate additional dialogue among those who listen to them.

Socrates is on trial for his life. He is charged with impiety and corrupting young people. He presents his own defense, explaining why he has devoted his life to challenging the most powerful and important people in the Greek world. The reason is that rich and famous politicians, priests, poets, and a host of others pretend to know what is good, true, holy, and beautiful, but when Socrates questions them they are shown to be foolish rather than wise.Plato lived in Athens, Greece. He wrote approximately two-dozen dialogues that explore core topics that are essential to all human beings. Although the historical Socrates was a strong influence on Plato, the character by that name that appears in many of his dialogues is a product of Plato’s fertile imagination. All of Plato’s dialogues are written in a poetic form that his student Aristotle called "Socratic dialogue." In the twentieth century, the British philosopher and logician Alfred North Whitehead characterized the entire European philosophical tradition as "a series of footnotes to Plato." Philosophy for Plato was not a set of doctrines but a goal — not the possession of wisdom but the love of wisdom. Agora Publications offers these performances based on the assumption that Plato wrote these works to be performed by actors in order to stimulate additional dialogue among those who listen to them.

Whitehead presented these three lectures at Princeton University in 1929. Although 85 years have passed, his central thesis and his analysis remain remarkably current. The scientific materialism that Whitehead opposed with such vigor continues to dominate in academic circles, and even now those who question that worldview are often accused of being anti-scientific. This is especially true in discussions of the nature of the human mind and its relation to the body (particularly the brain). It is hard to find a contemporary thinker with a better perspective on the nature and role of natural science than Whitehead who, with Bertrand Russell, published the "Principia Mathematica" in 1910; who taught logic and mathematics at Trinity College of Cambridge University; who taught philosophy of science at University College London; and who was professor of philosophy at Harvard University beginning in 1924. Whitehead’s cosmology is far from anti-scientific, but he does explain why scientific method and technological practice alone are not able to provide a comprehensive understanding of the full range of human thought and experience. This work explains what we must do to achieve such a comprehensive understanding.Whitehead, with Bertrand Russell, published the "Principia Mathematica" in 1910; he taught logic and mathematics at Trinity College of Cambridge University; he taught philosophy of science at University College London — with special emphasis on the conceptual impact of contemporary physics; and he was professor of philosophy at Harvard University, beginning in 1924, where he taught metaphysics. Whitehead’s cosmology is far from anti-scientific, but he does explain why scientific method and technological practice alone are not able to provide a comprehensive understanding of the full range of human thought and experience.